By: Lorenzo Blanco
Volume IX – Issue I – Fall 2023
Introduction
For decades, people have regarded Southern California’s Salton Sea as something of a wasteland; the Salton Sea’s increasing hypersalinity as a result of toxic agricultural runoff and an ever-shrinking water supply has put a heavy ecological strain on birds dependent on the sea for vital migratory stops as well as on fish and other aquatic life. Once planned as a glamorous resort destination for Southern Californians, the Salton Sea’s hypersalinity issue has also taken its toll on Salton City, a community of people dependent on the promised bountiful influx of cash from the hospitality and tourism industries. With the Salton Sea’s once beautiful waters turned into a fermenting mix of chemical waste, the town’s economy began to collapse as swimmers and boaters began to find mass fish die-offs, tourists began to avoid the sea’s shoreline stench, and property owners began to sell whatever they could to move away from the disaster. However, it has recently been discovered that below the Salton Sea lies bountiful deposits of lithium. In fact, experts think that the Salton Sea has enough lithium below it to meet nearly 40% of the global demand. [1] Lithium is the most sought-after metal in the technology and exponentially growing electric vehicle industries, as lithium ion batteries are the new industry standard in battery capacity and longevity. [2] These newly discovered lithium deposits raise an interesting conflict between the economic needs of a human population set to potentially benefit greatly from a new source of income and the needs of other species already fighting for survival in the Salton Basin. Furthermore, many large corporations have begun to secure large tracts of land with exclusive rights to extraction. In a world becoming increasingly dependent on lithium for the batteries fueling the switch to alternative energies, securing mining rights and implementing mining practices will undoubtedly put environmental and employment laws to the test and could set new precedent for lithium mining. California Natural Resources Secretary Wade Crowfoot declared the Salton Sea to be “an ecological crisis and a public health crisis.” [3] This paper argues that the discovery of “Lithium Valley” could hold the solution to the Salton Sea’s ecological and humanitarian crisis via an immensely profitable extraction model that would simultaneously revitalize the Salton Basin’s economic and ecological communities.
I. Background on the Salton Sea
The Colorado River has for the past 10,000 years repeatedly flooded and transformed the Salton Basin, situated just in between the south of Riverside county and the North of Imperial county in Southern California. [4] The anthropogenic history of the Salton Sea dates back 12,000 years, when Indigenous groups such as the Cahuilla people began to live in the basin. The modern day “Salton Sea” refers to the most recent iteration of the historic Lake Cahuilla, a result of an engineering mistake in 1905. In an effort to maximize the agricultural potential of the Imperial Valley, engineers began digging irrigation channels out of the sides of the Colorado River. When these channels flowed with less water than they had imagined, the engineers dug a larger channel from the river’s western side. However, floodwaters breached this larger channel and instead diverted the course of the Colorado River to flow directly into the Salton Basin, forming the body of water seen today. [5] The newly reformed inland lake almost immediately became a refuge for nearly 400 species of birds that would grow to become dependent on the Salton Sea as California suffered a 95% decline in wetland habitat during the 20th century. [6]
Since its creation, the Salton Sea has functioned as a drainage basin [7 ]for the hyperproductive Imperial and Coachella Valley fruit, vegetable, and livestock feed fields. [8] President Calvin Coolidge in 1924 issued Public Water Reserve Executive Order 90 which designated the boundaries of the Salton Sea 244 feet below sea level as an irrigation waste water disposal zone. [9] Soon afterward in 1928, President Coolidge made a slight modification to his previous order by issuing Public Water Reserve Executive Order 114 to change the boundaries of irrigation waste disposal to fit the Salton Sea’s change in surface level from 244 to 220 feet below sea level. [10] These executive orders established the runoff from Imperial and Coachella Valley fields as the sole contributor of additional water to the lake, carrying an influx of essential nutrients and salt. When the 70th Congress of the United States passed the Boulder Canyon Project Act in 1928, the construction of the Hoover Dam and the All American Canal would ensure that the Colorado River could never again flood as it had for millennia [11] ; in the event that the Salton Sea would eventually dry out as its predecessor Lake Cahuilla had before, the flood control measures enacted by Congress would render the reformation of the Salton Sea impossible. With these early intervention policies, the Salton Sea became an ecosystem whose fate rested almost entirely in the hands of humanity. On November 25th, 1930, President Herbert Hoover seemingly realized the importance of effective habitat management to the survival of the Salton Sea, enacting Executive Order 5498 to establish the Salton Sea Wildlife Refuge. [12] Throughout the decades, breeding colonies of crested cormorants, white pelicans, and even endangered brown pelicans, all piscivorous birds reliant on the introduced fish stocks, would come to settle along the Salton Sea. [13] In addition, the Salton Sea quickly became a vital stopping point along the Pacific Flyway migratory bird route. With a vibrant wildlife population, developers began to envision the Salton Sea as a thriving oasis in the desert where people could sail their boats, enjoy fine dining and even some nightlife all while staying at waterfront hotels. The Salton Sea had by 1960 become a center for sportfishing, boasted a yacht club on its north shore, and had even had the lands around it be declared a National Park - California’s second largest at the time. [14] Developers had begun to draw the first plans for Salton City, a final testament to the new wealth that the booming hospitality and tourism industries brought to the area. But beneath its seemingly picturesque surface, the Salton Sea was dying.
II. The Threat of Increasing Salinity and the Quantification Settlement Agreement
Starting in the 1970s, the consequences of toxic chemicals such as fertilizer compounds found within the essential agricultural runoff began to pose a threat to the ecosystem. Furthermore, the lake itself began to shrink. Although the issue of water loss had been an area of concern for the Salton Sea soon after its creation, it was not until the late 1960s and early 1970s that the lake began to shrink at a concerning rate. By the 1980s, the water levels had risen and fallen so dramatically that the Salton Sea’s North Shore Beach and Yacht Club was forced to close its doors. [15] Not long after, the state of California issued a selenium warning on fish consumption, marking the beginning of the end for the Salton Sea’s sportfishing industry. [16] However, it was not until the passage of the Quantification Settlement Agreement that the public perception of the Salton Sea soured to its present day narrative of the lake as a desolate, toxic wasteland.
The Quantification Settlement Agreement was set to doom the Salton Basin community from the start. California had notoriously used far more than its allotted share of Colorado River water to meet its urban consumption demands in the midst of drought, but had always been able to rely on the surplus water shares from Nevada and Arizona, two important Colorado River Basin states. [17] In 2003, California faced a problem: the amount of surplus water available from Nevada and Arizona that they had grown dependent on was decreasing, and officials projected that soon Nevada and Arizona would have no extra water to share at all. [18] In order to spare its urban population from the worst effects of the drought, in 2003 California signed into state law the Quantification Settlement Agreement. The Quantification Settlement Agreement sought to mitigate California’s reliance on the Colorado River by transferring 200,000 acre-feet a year of water designated for the Salton Sea and the rest of the Imperial Valley to San Diego and a transfer of 105,000 acre-feet a year of water to the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California; this transfer would mark the largest agricultural to urban water transfer in the history of the United States. [19] Knowing that this water transfer would have adverse effects on the Salton Sea ecosystem, the Quantification Settlement Agreement authors generated a Joint Powers Authority made up of the Imperial Irrigation District, the Coachella Valley Water District, the San Diego County Water Authority, and the state of California. [20] All of these organizations would be charged with providing fresh water to the Salton Sea in order to compensate for the loss in agricultural runoff after the transfer from the Imperial Valley until the year 2018. [21] After 2018, when the Imperial Irrigation District and the San Diego County Water Authority were no longer obliged to send fresh water, the Salton Sea began to shrink at an alarming rate. At its peak, the waters of the Salton Sea spanned an area of 400 square miles. [22] Today, the lake spans under 330 square miles, and the water depth does not exceed 50 feet in any part of the lake. [23] The rapid shrinking of the Salton Sea has resulted in a salinity value of 60 parts per thousand - a salinity value nearly double that of the Pacific Ocean [24] - and has given way to a host of other water quality issues such as eutrophication (the overabundance of certain nutrients in the water) and harmful algal productivity. [25] Both avian and aquatic biodiversity took a nosedive, and the once sophisticated, glamorous shoreline hotels and yacht club were crippled under the weight of an economy now devoid of revenue as the odor from the toxic water permeated throughout the Salton Basin. [26] The dream of Salton City had been forgotten, and the vast majority of those who had managed to build up a business in the Salton Basin abandoned their livelihoods and homes. [27] Since then, California has attempted several restoration projects in the area, but the Salton Sea and its fumes have in recent years instead only become a health hazard to some 650,000 people in Imperial County. [28] With both the human and non-human communities of the Salton Sea nearing complete collapse, the future of the Salton Basin looked bleak until one revolutionary discovery by the California Energy Commission: rich, untapped reserves of lithium below the toxic waves and desert. Assembly Bill 1657, Chapter 271 authored by Eduardo Garcia of Coachella in 2020 created the Lithium Valley Commission, charged with “reviewing, investigating, and analyzing” the “potential incentives” for extraction. [29]
III. Discovering “Lithium Valley”
The reserves of lithium below the Salton Sea could be the key to the recovery of both the people of the Salton Basin as well as its biodiversity. In a world increasingly focused on and committed to the transition to renewable energy, regions possessing the metals and other natural resources necessary to build these technologies have received heightened attention and become increasingly valuable state and federal assets. Specifically within the automotive industry, every brand has been thrown into a race to produce enticing, innovative electric vehicles not only to meet heightened emissions regulations, but to be able to compete with other rival manufacturers in the changing market as well. The California Energy Commission claims that the lithium under the Salton Sea alone could be sufficient to meet the entirety of the United States’ predicted demand as well as 40% of the world’s demand for the metal. [30] Since lithium is required for all electric vehicle batteries, the Salton Sea and the residents of the Salton Basin are living atop unprecedented capital that has already brought never-before-seen corporate attention, investment, and employment opportunities that could very well save the future of the Salton Basin itself.
IV. The Predicament of Lithium Mining in the United States - Reno, Nevada
Lithium mining in the United States has historically been an underdeveloped yet laborious, environmentally taxing process that has been met with notable criticism from Indigenous tribes and conservationist groups. One federal law passed in the late 19th century had until recently set the precedent for mining procedures in the country; the Mining Law of 1872 states that “all valuable mineral deposits in land belonging to the United States” are “free and open to exploration and purchase.” [31] Furthermore, the law also states that those who have obtained mining rights on federal land also may utilize adjacent federal land for waste disposal. [32] In recent years, anti-mining activists have called for a revision to the Mining Law of 1872, claiming that the law is outdated and does not provide adequate justification for a claim over land for waste disposal. In May 2023, the Department of the Interior conducted a review of the Mining Law of 1872 to align with “the realities of the 21st Century.” [33] The review comes prompted after a 2022 decision from the Arizona 9th Circuit Court of Appeals to uphold a landmark 2019 ruling that blocked the construction of a copper mine in the Santa Rita mountains, the ancestral lands of the Tohono O’odham Nation, the Pascua Yaqui Tribe, and the Hopi Tribe. [34] Despite this 9th Circuit ruling favoring Indigenous activists, United States Judge Miranda Du used it to back her own ruling in the case against the Bureau of Land Management and the construction of the Thacker Pass Lithium Mine. [35] Indigenous leaders of the Reno area argued alongside conservationists to present the issue that the construction of and extraction from this mine would destroy ancestral land that was the site of a 1865 massacre at the hands of the United States Cavalry [36]; the mine would also disrupt vital habitat for the endangered sage grouse. [37] However, Judge Du ruled that although the Bureau of Land Management had acted illegally by failing to provide sufficient proof of a legitimate claim for waste disposal in the area, the Canadian company responsible for opening the Thacker Pass Lithium Mine was still authorized to begin operations since the United States Department of the Interior had verified that the Bureau of Land Management had found reasonable proof that valuable lithium was below the surface. [38] In addition, she asserted that the Indigenous tribes suing the Bureau of Land Management had “failed to prove” that the 1865 massacre had taken place at the site of the mine. [39] Judge Du’s ruling sparked an uproar and is an example of the United States’ historic disregard for Indigenous sovereignty and culture as well as an example of putting biodiversity at risk for the sake of expanded industry. Up until now, the Thacker Pass Lithium Mine was the only lithium mine within the United States, [40] but the stores located within the Salton Basin could, if utilized correctly, offer a viable solution to alleviate the pressure the Thacker Pass Lithium plant puts on the Indigenous peoples and native wildlife of Nevada. As previously stated, the estimates of lithium beneath the surface of the Salton Basin alone could meet an astounding amount of the United States and global demand for lithium. Lithium extraction operations running in the Salton Basin could render the Thacker Pass Lithium Mine obsolete and any cost-benefit arguments in support of the mine moot, allowing for the Indigenous people of the Reno area to reclaim their ancestral lands and the sage grouse habitat to begin to recover.
V. The Salton Sea as the Solution
Lithium extraction in the Salton Basin could be the key to providing the United States and the world with electric mobility while simultaneously bringing increased economic opportunity, thus allowing for desperately needed ecological restoration projects to rehabilitate the Salton Sea ecosystem. EnergySource, one of three companies set to begin lithium extraction in the Salton Sea, plans to mount a one billion dollar investment into the Salton Basin community by building their plant. [41] Imperial County is one of California’s poorest counties, with its predominantly Mexican-American population being subject to noxious fumes and high unemployment rates while younger members of the community are forced to leave in search of jobs elsewhere. {42} An investment this size into the Salton Basin community would dramatically shift the job market and opportunity for economic advancement in the region. [43] Maria Nava-Froelich, mayor pro tem of Calipatria, California, notes that she views the potential lithium extraction efforts as “a game changer here for Imperial County.” [44] Not only would an abundance of new jobs arise in Imperial County, but these jobs would be stable due to an established increasing and incredibly high demand for lithium worldwide. For example, lithium prices in China for May 2022 were at $440,000 per ton, an amount six times greater than the price per ton in January of 2020, just two years prior. [45] Furthermore, EnergySource’s planned method of extraction requires virtually no change from the current electricity generation methods in place for the Salton Basin, utilizing the same method of extracting pure steam from geothermal brine with the one modification that lithium would be extracted from the leftover brine before it is returned to the earth. [46] EnergySource is not the only company with intent to begin lithium extraction. Berkshire Hathaway Energy Renewables and Controlled Thermal Resources both plan to launch pilot extraction programs in the Salton Basin as well. [47] Multiple competitor companies brings an additional assurance to the prospective workers of the Imperial Valley: in a corporate environment with multiple competitors, employers will have a higher incentive to provide fair and generally higher salaries to their employees in order to entice them to stay with the company and or join in the first place.
With a steady flow of revenue coming into the Salton Basin as well as a community set to grow and thrive with increased economic opportunity, environmental advocates are optimistic that the Salton Sea will receive heightened attention and financial support from the state of California to finally fulfill completely its series of restoration promises, such as the November 2015 Fish and Wildlife Service partnership with the Imperial Irrigation District on the Red Hill Bay wading bird habitat and dust suppression project. [48]
The Red Hill Bay project is of particular importance, as it is the direct result of state and community efforts to restore the Salton Sea. The Red Hill Bay project is funded by California Proposition 84, which voters enacted on November 7th, 2006 to create a $5.4 billion water bond with $47 million of that money budgeted entirely for the benefit of the Salton Sea. [49] This project is a particularly good example of how restoration of the Salton Sea and the welfare of the people of the Salton Basin are deeply connected. For decades, the receding water levels have exposed lake bed that, when dried out, creates toxic dust in the air. In fact, Imperial County has one of the worst air qualities in the country, and the highest asthma-related emergency room visits in children out of any county in California. [50] The project aims to resubmerge over 500 acres of this exposed playa to rebuild habitat for the Salton Sea’s shorebird residents while also improving the air quality for people living in Imperial County. [51] Although initial work began on the project starting in 2016, additional media attention and funding would allow for the program to gain more traction.
VI. Conclusion
The precipitous decline of the Salton Sea is an issue with deep implications for both human and non-human life. However, the crisis facing the Salton Sea was caused by the anthropocentric separation of humans from other forms of life, a separation that leads to ineffective habitat management and conservation efforts that do not accurately reflect the true needs of the community. With the community of the Salton Basin in utter disrepair, lithium extraction may provide officials with the opportunity to make an ecological decision that, instead of prioritizing the water needs of only humans like the California government did with the 2003 Quantification Settlement Agreement, also benefits the equally important biodiversity of the Salton Sea. Shifting the United States’ lithium extraction efforts to the Salton Sea alone would meet more than enough of future corporate demand and effectively eliminate the need to seek out new sources of lithium in other parts of the country, while also relieving unnecessary pressure on Indigenous communities and the sage grouse in Reno, Nevada. At this point in global climate history, the actions society takes now will ensure the continued survival of the planet, or the continued destruction of it. The survival of the planet and its communities and ecosystems transcends the constructed boundary between humanity and nature. As long as lithium mining and extraction plans continue to proceed as legally and ethically conscious as they have been planned so far, the metal very well could single handedly save the future of the Salton Basin.
Endnotes
[1] Katie Brigham. 2022. “The Salton Sea could produce the world's greenest lithium, if new extraction technologies work.” CNBC. https://www.cnbc.com/2022/05/04/the-salton-sea-could-produce-the-worlds-greenest-lithium.html.
[2] Lee Powell and Ricky Carioti. 2023. “How lithium gets from the earth into your electric car.” Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/interactive/2023/how-is-lithium-mined/.
[3] Janet Wilson. 2019. “Salton Sea: Fish and the birds that fed on them wiped out this winter.” The Desert Sun. https://www.desertsun.com/story/news/2019/02/08/salton-sea-california-fish-bird-die-off-winter/2818025002/.
[4] “History – Salton Sea Authority.” n.d. Salton Sea Authority. Accessed November 3, 2023. https://saltonsea.com/get-informed/history/.
[5] “History – Salton Sea Authority.” n.d. Salton Sea Authority. Accessed November 3, 2023. https://saltonsea.com/get-informed/history/.
[6] Emma Newburger. 2021. “California's Salton Sea spewing toxic fumes, creating ghost towns.” CNBC. https://www.cnbc.com/2021/11/06/californias-salton-sea-spewing-toxic-fumes-creating-ghost-towns-.html.
[7] Background Information on the Salton Sea.” n.d. California Department of Fish and Wildlife. Accessed November 3, 2023. https://wildlife.ca.gov/Regions/6/Salton-Sea-Program/Background.
[8] Sara. 2016. “Imperial Valley and Coachella Valley Farm Tour.” My Imperfect Kitchen. https://myimperfectkitchen.com/imperial-valley-and-coachella-valley-farm-tour/.
[9] “Recent History.” n.d. Life of the Salton Sea. Accessed November 3, 2023. https://lifeofthesaltonsea.org/recent-history
[10] Ibid.
[11] “History – Salton Sea Authority.” n.d. Salton Sea Authority. Accessed November 3, 2023. https://saltonsea.com/get-informed/history/.
[12] Denise Goolsby. 2015. “History of Salton Sea solutions tends to repeat itself.” The Desert Sun. https://www.desertsun.com/story/news/environment/2015/05/14/salton-sea-history-repeats/27316763/.
[13] Janet Wilson. 2019. “Salton Sea: Fish and the birds that fed on them wiped out this winter.” The Desert Sun. https://www.desertsun.com/story/news/2019/02/08/salton-sea-california-fish-bird-die-off-winter/2818025002/.
[14] “History – Salton Sea Authority.” n.d. Salton Sea Authority. Accessed November 3, 2023. https://saltonsea.com/get-informed/history/.
[15] Newburger, Emma. 2021. “California's Salton Sea spewing toxic fumes, creating ghost towns.” CNBC. https://www.cnbc.com/2021/11/06/californias-salton-sea-spewing-toxic-fumes-creating-ghost-towns-.html.
[16] “History – Salton Sea Authority.” n.d. Salton Sea Authority. Accessed November 3, 2023. https://saltonsea.com/get-informed/history/.
[17] “Quantification Settlement Agreement.” n.d. Water Education Foundation. Accessed November 3, 2023. https://www.watereducation.org/aquapedia/quantification-settlement-agreement.
[18] “Background Information on the Salton Sea.” n.d. California Department of Fish and Wildlife. Accessed November 3, 2023. https://wildlife.ca.gov/Regions/6/Salton-Sea-Program/Background.
[19] “Quantification Settlement Agreement.” n.d. Water Education Foundation. Accessed November 3, 2023. https://www.watereducation.org/aquapedia/quantification-settlement-agreement.
[20] “Background Information on the Salton Sea.” n.d. California Department of Fish and Wildlife. Accessed November 3, 2023. https://wildlife.ca.gov/Regions/6/Salton-Sea-Program/Background.
[21] “Quantification Settlement Agreement.” n.d. Water Education Foundation. Accessed November 3, 2023. https://www.watereducation.org/aquapedia/quantification-settlement-agreement.
[22] Newburger, Emma. 2021. “California's Salton Sea spewing toxic fumes, creating ghost towns.” CNBC. https://www.cnbc.com/2021/11/06/californias-salton-sea-spewing-toxic-fumes-creating-ghost-towns-.html.
[23] “Salton Sea.” n.d. Imperial Irrigation District. Accessed November 3, 2023. https://www.iid.com/water/salton-sea.
[24] “F.A.Q. – Salton Sea Authority.” n.d. Salton Sea Authority. Accessed November 3, 2023. https://saltonsea.com/about/faq/.
[25] “Background Information on the Salton Sea.” n.d. California Department of Fish and Wildlife. Accessed November 3, 2023. https://wildlife.ca.gov/Regions/6/Salton-Sea-Program/Background.
[26] Newburger, Emma. 2021. “California's Salton Sea spewing toxic fumes, creating ghost towns.” CNBC. https://www.cnbc.com/2021/11/06/californias-salton-sea-spewing-toxic-fumes-creating-ghost-towns-.html.
[27] Id.
[28] Michael Cohen. 2014. “Hazard’s Toll: The Costs of Inaction at the Salton Sea.” Pacific Institute. https://pacinst.org/publication/hazards-toll/.
[29] “Lithium Valley Commission.” n.d. California Energy Commission. Accessed November 20, 2023. https://www.energy.ca.gov/data-reports/california-power-generation-and-power-sources/geothermal-energy/lithiumvalley.
[30] Katie Brigham. 2022. “The Salton Sea could produce the world's greenest lithium, if new extraction technologies work.” CNBC. https://www.cnbc.com/2022/05/04/the-salton-sea-could-produce-the-worlds-greenest-lithium.html.
[31] “About Mining and Minerals.” n.d. Bureau of Land Management. Accessed November 3, 2023. https://www.blm.gov/programs/energy-and-minerals/mining-and-minerals/about/
[32] Scott Sonner and Matthew Daly. 2023. “Biden administration clarifies 1872 Mining Law; says huge Nevada lithium mine can proceed.” AP News. https://apnews.com/article/mining-lithium-nevada-thacker-rosemont-decision-c7e251ef3994dfea4f2dff58322ff4ac.
[33] Scott Sonner and Matthew Daly. 2023. “Biden administration clarifies 1872 Mining Law; says huge Nevada lithium mine can proceed.” AP News. https://apnews.com/article/mining-lithium-nevada-thacker-rosemont-decision-c7e251ef3994dfea4f2dff58322ff4ac.
[34] “9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals Upholds Landmark Ruling Blocking Arizona Copper Mine.” 2022. Earthjustice. https://earthjustice.org/press/2022/9th-u-s-circuit-court-of-appeals-upholds-landmark-ruling-blocking-arizona-copper-mine.
[35] Owens, Bill, dir. 2023. 60 Minutes. Season 55, episode 33, “Lithium Valley.” CBS News. Aired May 4, 2023.
[36] “Judge Rules Against Tribes in Fight Over Nevada Lithium Mine.” 2023. VOA News. https://www.voanews.com/a/judge-rules-against-tribes-in-fight-over-nevada-lithium-mine-/7358861.html.
[37] Scott Sonner. 2023. “US judge won't block huge lithium mine on Nevada-Oregon line.” AP News. https://apnews.com/article/technology-climate-and-environment-business-nevada-reno-d72431ba9e8ea24bed3b6303249e3f0d.
[38] Scott Sonner and Matthew Daly. 2023. “Biden administration clarifies 1872 Mining Law; says huge Nevada lithium mine can proceed.” AP News. https://apnews.com/article/mining-lithium-nevada-thacker-rosemont-decision-c7e251ef3994dfea4f2dff58322ff4ac.
[39] “Judge Rules Against Tribes in Fight Over Nevada Lithium Mine.” 2023. VOA News. https://www.voanews.com/a/judge-rules-against-tribes-in-fight-over-nevada-lithium-mine-/7358861.html.
[40] Owens, Bill, dir. 2023. 60 Minutes. Season 55, episode 33, “Lithium Valley.” CBS News. Aired May 4, 2023.
[41] Owens, Bill, dir. 2023. 60 Minutes. Season 55, episode 33, “Lithium Valley.” CBS News. Aired May 4, 2023.
[42] Katie Brigham. 2022. “The Salton Sea could produce the world's greenest lithium, if new extraction technologies work.” CNBC. https://www.cnbc.com/2022/05/04/the-salton-sea-could-produce-the-worlds-greenest-lithium.html.
[43] Newburger, Emma. 2021. “California's Salton Sea spewing toxic fumes, creating ghost towns.” CNBC. https://www.cnbc.com/2021/11/06/californias-salton-sea-spewing-toxic-fumes-creating-ghost-towns-.html.
[44] Katie Brigham. 2022. “The Salton Sea could produce the world's greenest lithium, if new extraction technologies work.” CNBC. https://www.cnbc.com/2022/05/04/the-salton-sea-could-produce-the-worlds-greenest-lithium.html.
[45] Wilson, Janet, and Erin Rode. 2022. “Lithium Valley: A look at the major players near the Salton Sea seeking billions in funding.” The Desert Sun. https://www.desertsun.com/story/news/2022/05/13/lithium-valley-look-major-players-near-salton-sea-seeking-billions-funding/9665978002/.
[46] Owens, Bill, dir. 2023. 60 Minutes. Season 55, episode 33, “Lithium Valley.” CBS News. Aired May 4, 2023.
[47] Katie Brigham. 2022. “The Salton Sea could produce the world's greenest lithium, if new extraction technologies work.” CNBC. https://www.cnbc.com/2022/05/04/the-salton-sea-could-produce-the-worlds-greenest-lithium.html.
[48] “History – Salton Sea Authority.” n.d. Salton Sea Authority. Accessed November 3, 2023. https://saltonsea.com/get-informed/history/.
[49] Roth, Sammy, Zoë Meyers, and Jay Calderon. 2017. “Salton Sea: A history of broken promises.” USA Today. https://www.usatoday.com/pages/interactives/salton-sea/timeline/.
[50] Newburger, Emma. 2021. “California's Salton Sea spewing toxic fumes, creating ghost towns.” CNBC. https://www.cnbc.com/2021/11/06/californias-salton-sea-spewing-toxic-fumes-creating-ghost-towns-.html.
[51] “Red Hill Bay.” n.d. California Department of Water Resources. Accessed November 3, 2023. https://water.ca.gov/Programs/Integrated-Regional-Water-Management/Salton-Sea-Unit/Red-Hill-Bay.